Q4 2008 / A car driven by compressed air: Fact or flight of fancy?
SGR
Staff Writer
Specialty Gas Report
A pollution-free vehicle that is driven by compressed air and can be
driven at speeds up to 98 mph for hundreds of miles without a
“re-fill” may sound like a fool’s dream,
but basic prototypes that claim to make this vision a reality are
scheduled for production in more than a dozen countries throughout the
world right now – including the United States.
Cars on the drawing board or approaching production range from
short-range three-seat run-abouts to mini buses for urban public
transportation.
Atmospheric air has an obvious advantage over other fuels. It is abundant, it is free, and it does not have to be treated in any way before it is compressed and stored in a high-pressure cylinder. The pumps used to compress the air for “fill-up” are relatively inexpensive and readily available. The cost for pressurizing a cylinder is not free, however. The initial cost of the pumps must be amortized and pump maintenance factored in. Other economic considerations include the cost of the electricity to operate the pumps and the cost to house the equipment. Even with these costs factored in, compressed air is far cheaper than gasoline.
One manufacturing firm points out that its eleven-cubic-foot, carbon
fiber cylinder, contains air at 4,500 psi. This is sufficient energy to
drive an air car, using only compressed air, for 175 miles. This range
could be tripled if a carbon fiber that holds air at 10,000 psi is
used. This type of tank already meets safety standards. Eleven cubic
feet of air at 4,500 psi contains about 16 kilowatt-hours of energy
(equivalent to the energy in 0.44 gallon, assuming a 100 percent
efficiency of the engine).
Since there is no combustion in a compressed air car, there is no pollution, reducing the need for an oil change to only every 31.000 miles using vegetable oil. Tanks refills require about three minutes at a service station, or several hours at home when the on-board compressor is plugged into the electric grid. The cost of driving such an air car is projected to be approximately $1.37 per 100 miles, with a complete refill at a “tank-station” costing about $3.00.
How it works
In the basic compressed air only version, air is stored in a high-pressure carbon-fiber cylinder at 3,000 to 4,500 psi. When the air is released it expands, creating a force that is applied to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine. Most compressed air engines do not need a transmission, only a flow control.
The air expelled from the tail pipe is actually cleaner than the air used to fill the tank because before it is compressed into a cylinder, it is run through carbon filters to eliminate dirt, dust, humidity, and other urban air impurities that could hamper the engine’s performance. The exhaust gas is not only clean, it is cold (5F-32F)), so it can be used to air condition
the car.
The air car (technically, it should be referred to as a
“compressed air car”) is not a new concept. Only
the technology and the audacity to make it practical for use by anyone
who holds a driver’s license was needed. That day appears to
have arrived.
At least four major manufacturers are close to production or are perfecting their prototypes (See bottom of page). A number of versions are being investigated and developed – from those that use only compressed air to others that combine compressed air and conventional fuels.
One visionary vehicle, driven by compressed air alone, was recently spotted on the streets of France, carrying French plates. This suggests that it has been declared road-worthy and has been approved for use in city traffic. Other models have been unveiled at prestigious auto shows in many venues, including the New York Auto Show 2008.
The air car was a Mini FlowAIR model developed by MDI (Moteur Development International), a Nice, France-based company. The “Compressed Air Engine” (CAE) used in this visionary vehicle was the brainchild of Formula One race car engineer, Guy Negre, who was a founder of MDI.
A Historical Perspective
Compressed air engines have existed in many forms over the past two centuries, ranging in size from a few foot-pounds to several hundred horsepower.
The concept of using compressed air as the power to drive vehicles and other devices was first recorded in the publication of the Royal Society London, in 1687. An article in that journal referred to a Dennis Papin as having come up with the idea of using compressed air as a driving force.
Beginning in the late 1800s, and continuing to today, mine locomotives have been driven successfully with compressed air. Also, air power has been applied to launch naval torpedoes since 1866. More recently, compressed air has been used on race cars to provide the initial energy needed to start their internal combustion engines.
In addition to the engine conceived by Guy Negre, other compressed air engines are being developed by Uruguayan engineer Armando Regusci, Australian Angelo Di Pietro, South Korea Chul-Seung Cho, and Kernelys’ K’Airmobiles Compressed air vehicles.
Efficiency was dramatically increased in a design conceived by Armando Regusci of Uruguay in 1989. Previous versions supplied a constant torque, and power was consumed even during idle. Regusci’s design connects the transmission system directly to the wheel so that torque is variable from zero to the maximum, and no power is consumed when the vehicle is idling.
In 1991, Nègre developed a dual-energy engine that runs on both compressed air and a conventional fuel. Also, his compressed air only-engine has been improved so it is now claimed to be competitive with internal combustion engines.
MDI has licensed or partnered with 12 factories worldwide – five in Mexico, three in Australia and New Zealand, one in South Africa and three in France. One affiliate, MDI Andina S.A will sell MDI cars in Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Panama. Also, MDI has entered into an agreement with Tata Motors, to produce air cars in India. Tata Motors was scheduled to go into mass production by August 2008 with one MDI’s basic One FlowAir model, but production has been delayed and is now projected to launch in 2009.
Air Cars built in the U.S. project 1,000-Mile range
The first compressed air cars to be manufactured and sold in the U.S. will be available by early 2010, according to a spokesman for start-up company Zero Pollution Motors (ZPM), the exclusive representative for MDI in the United States. Plans are to produce several models based on MDI’s Compressed Air Engine, with production commencing in 2009. Their goal is to produce 10,000 cars per year by the end of 2010. Reservations will be taken in early 2009.
Model names are One FlowAIR, Mini FlowAIR, and City FlowAIR. While ZPM is licensed to build MDI’s two-seater One FlowAir economy model and the three-seat Mini FlowAIR, its vision reaches far beyond. Company officials are focusing on three different variations of a four-door City FlowAIR – personal cars and five-passenger taxis.
Built with fiberglass and injected foam, the chassis of the ZPM models will be have an aluminum rod frame that is impact-resistant and light. Frame and body are glued in the same way as air craft. A horizontally opposed engine is rear-mounted, driving the rear wheels (to eliminate friction losses caused by transmitting power to steered wheels) via a multi-function “moto-alternator” and a gearbox that requires only two or three ratios. The vehicle is expected to achieve a fuel economy of 106 miles per gallon, factoring in the energy used to heat compressed air entering the engine and average driving speeds.
“The compressed air cylinder in the ZPM models contains air at 4,360 psi,” says a company spokesman. “That’s good for about a 60-mile range, and that’s how our prototypes worked at the beginning. Also, that’s how they work in city mode. But when you warm the air as it comes out of the cylinder, like a gas water heater, there is more volume of air available for the pistons.”
ZPM officials state that: “With this new engine, a vehicle with one tank of air and approximately eight gallons of a conventional fuel gasoline, ethanol, or biofuel – the dual-engine City FlowAir model will travel between 800 and 1000 miles before a refill is needed.
“But that’s only an estimate,” he insists. The ZPM officials also expect their new cars to move along at speeds up to 98 mph, and carry a price tag of $17,800.
The AirFlow models will be built to the same safety rules and regulations that apply to all cars driven in the Unites States. Its design is based on a tubular body that meets all mandated crash-resistance standards.
Design versions
If compressed air from the cylinder is heated, engine efficiency increases. The law of thermodynamics states that the warmer a gas is, the more its volume will expand; therefore, the greater force it can apply.
Designers take full advantage of this law and they also create designs that increase both speed and range. The cars with the top speeds and ranges incorporate the dual-engine design referred to earlier. Depending on the application one both or a combination of these designs and the law of thermodynamics are applied. Also, the second engine requires a conventional fuel to operate.
Single-engine cars operate on compressed air only. Their range is
usually limited to 50 miles and speeds up to 35 mph. In an MDI Mini
FlowAIR model, compressed air is stored in a cylinder underneath the
vehicle. Compressed air is funneled into pistons where it expands to
approximately 15 times its compressed level. The decompression of the
air creates pressure that pushes the pistons and propels the car. The
expansion of the air also creates a by-product of cold air, which can
be used to air-condition the interior. The end result is an efficient
engine that generates sufficient power with zero emissions. Some
estimates project that this car can be driven 200 miles for as little
as three dollars.
The dual-engine models operate in four modes:
Mode 1 – At speeds below 35 mph, only compressed air is used. When a velocity of 35mph is reached, the small amounts of fuel – gasoline, propane, ethanol or bio fuels – combust continuously to heat air inside a heating chamber as the air enters the engine. This process produces emissions of only 0.141lbs of CO2 per mile. That is up to 25% less than the average internal combustion vehicle and more than 50% less than the cleanest vehicle available today.
Mode 2 – In this mode, the range of the car is increased by heating the compressed air before it is introduced in the engine.
Mode 3 – In this mode (when the vehicle’s speed exceeds 35 mph), the compressed air in the cylinder is no longer used. A built-in combined compressor kicks in to compress air, which is then heated in the external combustion chamber before being transferred to the active chamber and expanded, forcing the cylinder to move. Mode 3 is also is in effect when the car is travelling at speeds less than 35 mph and the supply cylinder is empty. Approximately 0.78 gallons of fuel per 100 miles is consumed in the heating process.
Mode 4 – In this mode, the combined compressor continues to operate as in Mode 3, but it also re-pressurizes the supply cylinder. The compressed air system is still central to propulsion, but this function can be likened to the General Motors “Flex Fuel” technology.
Technical Limits
The manufacturers who are on the verge of mass producing compressed air cars have had to consider many technical limits and the laws of physics.
As the pressurized air expands, it is cooled, which limits the efficiency. This cooling reduces the amount of energy that can be recovered by expansion, so practical engines need to apply ambient heat to increase the expansion available.
Conversely, the compression of the air by pumps (to pressurize the tanks) heats the air. If this heat is not recovered, it represents a further loss of energy and so reduces efficiency.
Storage of air at high pressure requires strong cylinders. Steel cylinders introduce a weight problem. Carbon fiber composites, while lighter, tend to be expensive.
Energy recovery in a vehicle during braking by compressing air also generates heat, which must be conserved for efficiency.
The air engine is not necessarily emission-free. The power to compress the air initially may produce emissions at the point of generation. However such emissions from the power to compress the air initially would be far less than the emissions from gasoline powered cars and trucks already on the streets.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The latest innovation
The newest addition to the MDI line of compressed air vehicles is aimed at the urban mobility market. Named the AIRPod, it costs only 1.3 cents per mile to operate. It can accommodate four passengers and is ideal for operation in urban areas. It is operated with a joy stick instead of a steering wheel and its direction is controlled by applying different speeds to each wheel. Its 50-gallon, 5,000-psi tank can be re-charged in 1.5 minutes. In road traffic, it has a range of 150 miles at a top speed of 45 mph. The AIRPod will be the first vehicle to come off MDI production lines in spring 2009.
Compressed Air Car Developers and Manufacturers
The
Air Car Factory – Air
Car Factories SA is proposing to develop and build a compressed air
engine. This Spanish based company was founded by Miguel Celades, a
former colleague of MDI’s Guy Nègre. Celades has
created a company called Air Car Factories, which is currently working
with the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and expects to have a
compressed air car prototype ready in the near future. The car under
development can travel at 68 mph and has a range of 93 miles when
energized by compressed air alone. If the compressed air is heated, the
range can be expanded to 600 or so miles. An eight-gallon gas tank
would somehow heat the incoming air to high pressure to drive the car
once the 4,500 psi cylinder is empty.
• www.aircarfactories.com
Energine Corporation – The Energine Corporation, a South Korean company worked on a hybrid compressed air and electric engine, actually pneumatic-hybrid electric vehicles. Its compressed-air engine drives an alternator that extends the autonomous operating capacity of the car.
• www.energine.com
U.S. Government – The U.S. Government is using a pneumatic accumulator in a largely hydraulic system for application in heavy vehicle applications.
Electro-Tech Enterprises – Electro-Tech Enterprises is a small company that specializes in electric air vehicles using a new technology discovered by themselves that is currently in the proto-type phase.
K’Airmobiles K’Airmobiles – K’Airmobiles K’Airmobiles has built prototypes of vehicles with pneumatic assistance for use in urban or leisure vehicles. They incorporate a compressed air engine with up to 100-liter cylinders that can be compressed up 3,000 psi. Application is on small vehicles up to 250 kg in size.
MDI and Tata Motors (See body copy.)
Zero Pollution Motors (See body copy.)
The air expelled from the tail pipe is actually cleaner than the air used to fill the tank
Atmospheric air has an obvious advantage over other fuels. It is abundant, it is free, and it does not have to be treated in any way before it is compressed and stored in a high-pressure cylinder. The pumps used to compress the air for “fill-up” are relatively inexpensive and readily available. The cost for pressurizing a cylinder is not free, however. The initial cost of the pumps must be amortized and pump maintenance factored in. Other economic considerations include the cost of the electricity to operate the pumps and the cost to house the equipment. Even with these costs factored in, compressed air is far cheaper than gasoline.
Figure 2. The dual-function engine to be built by ZPM is diagramed in this illustration. Mode A: Using only compressed air at speeds below 35 mph (1). Mode B: Using only compressed air, but with the air heated (2). Mode C: Operating at speeds exceeding 35 mph. Air from the intake (3) is being heated (2) to expand its volume before it enters the engine. Mode D: Operating as in Mode C, but also re-compressing the air in the cylinder (4) while travelling at speeds exceeding 35 mph.
Since there is no combustion in a compressed air car, there is no pollution, reducing the need for an oil change to only every 31.000 miles using vegetable oil. Tanks refills require about three minutes at a service station, or several hours at home when the on-board compressor is plugged into the electric grid. The cost of driving such an air car is projected to be approximately $1.37 per 100 miles, with a complete refill at a “tank-station” costing about $3.00.
How it works
In the basic compressed air only version, air is stored in a high-pressure carbon-fiber cylinder at 3,000 to 4,500 psi. When the air is released it expands, creating a force that is applied to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine. Most compressed air engines do not need a transmission, only a flow control.
The air expelled from the tail pipe is actually cleaner than the air used to fill the tank because before it is compressed into a cylinder, it is run through carbon filters to eliminate dirt, dust, humidity, and other urban air impurities that could hamper the engine’s performance. The exhaust gas is not only clean, it is cold (5F-32F)), so it can be used to air condition
the car.
Figure 3. A dual-engine concept car, the City FlowAIR by Zero Pollution Motors, is a six-seat, family-size compressed air vehicle for the U.S. market. It has a six-cylinder, 75-hp engine, an estimated top speed of 98 mph, a range of up to 850 miles, and a fuel consumption of 106 mpg. Price: $17,800.
At least four major manufacturers are close to production or are perfecting their prototypes (See bottom of page). A number of versions are being investigated and developed – from those that use only compressed air to others that combine compressed air and conventional fuels.
One visionary vehicle, driven by compressed air alone, was recently spotted on the streets of France, carrying French plates. This suggests that it has been declared road-worthy and has been approved for use in city traffic. Other models have been unveiled at prestigious auto shows in many venues, including the New York Auto Show 2008.
The air car was a Mini FlowAIR model developed by MDI (Moteur Development International), a Nice, France-based company. The “Compressed Air Engine” (CAE) used in this visionary vehicle was the brainchild of Formula One race car engineer, Guy Negre, who was a founder of MDI.
A Historical Perspective
Compressed air engines have existed in many forms over the past two centuries, ranging in size from a few foot-pounds to several hundred horsepower.
The concept of using compressed air as the power to drive vehicles and other devices was first recorded in the publication of the Royal Society London, in 1687. An article in that journal referred to a Dennis Papin as having come up with the idea of using compressed air as a driving force.
Beginning in the late 1800s, and continuing to today, mine locomotives have been driven successfully with compressed air. Also, air power has been applied to launch naval torpedoes since 1866. More recently, compressed air has been used on race cars to provide the initial energy needed to start their internal combustion engines.
In addition to the engine conceived by Guy Negre, other compressed air engines are being developed by Uruguayan engineer Armando Regusci, Australian Angelo Di Pietro, South Korea Chul-Seung Cho, and Kernelys’ K’Airmobiles Compressed air vehicles.
Efficiency was dramatically increased in a design conceived by Armando Regusci of Uruguay in 1989. Previous versions supplied a constant torque, and power was consumed even during idle. Regusci’s design connects the transmission system directly to the wheel so that torque is variable from zero to the maximum, and no power is consumed when the vehicle is idling.
In 1991, Nègre developed a dual-energy engine that runs on both compressed air and a conventional fuel. Also, his compressed air only-engine has been improved so it is now claimed to be competitive with internal combustion engines.
MDI has licensed or partnered with 12 factories worldwide – five in Mexico, three in Australia and New Zealand, one in South Africa and three in France. One affiliate, MDI Andina S.A will sell MDI cars in Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Panama. Also, MDI has entered into an agreement with Tata Motors, to produce air cars in India. Tata Motors was scheduled to go into mass production by August 2008 with one MDI’s basic One FlowAir model, but production has been delayed and is now projected to launch in 2009.
Air Cars built in the U.S. project 1,000-Mile range
The first compressed air cars to be manufactured and sold in the U.S. will be available by early 2010, according to a spokesman for start-up company Zero Pollution Motors (ZPM), the exclusive representative for MDI in the United States. Plans are to produce several models based on MDI’s Compressed Air Engine, with production commencing in 2009. Their goal is to produce 10,000 cars per year by the end of 2010. Reservations will be taken in early 2009.
Model names are One FlowAIR, Mini FlowAIR, and City FlowAIR. While ZPM is licensed to build MDI’s two-seater One FlowAir economy model and the three-seat Mini FlowAIR, its vision reaches far beyond. Company officials are focusing on three different variations of a four-door City FlowAIR – personal cars and five-passenger taxis.
Built with fiberglass and injected foam, the chassis of the ZPM models will be have an aluminum rod frame that is impact-resistant and light. Frame and body are glued in the same way as air craft. A horizontally opposed engine is rear-mounted, driving the rear wheels (to eliminate friction losses caused by transmitting power to steered wheels) via a multi-function “moto-alternator” and a gearbox that requires only two or three ratios. The vehicle is expected to achieve a fuel economy of 106 miles per gallon, factoring in the energy used to heat compressed air entering the engine and average driving speeds.
“The compressed air cylinder in the ZPM models contains air at 4,360 psi,” says a company spokesman. “That’s good for about a 60-mile range, and that’s how our prototypes worked at the beginning. Also, that’s how they work in city mode. But when you warm the air as it comes out of the cylinder, like a gas water heater, there is more volume of air available for the pistons.”
ZPM officials state that: “With this new engine, a vehicle with one tank of air and approximately eight gallons of a conventional fuel gasoline, ethanol, or biofuel – the dual-engine City FlowAir model will travel between 800 and 1000 miles before a refill is needed.
“But that’s only an estimate,” he insists. The ZPM officials also expect their new cars to move along at speeds up to 98 mph, and carry a price tag of $17,800.
The AirFlow models will be built to the same safety rules and regulations that apply to all cars driven in the Unites States. Its design is based on a tubular body that meets all mandated crash-resistance standards.
Design versions
If compressed air from the cylinder is heated, engine efficiency increases. The law of thermodynamics states that the warmer a gas is, the more its volume will expand; therefore, the greater force it can apply.
Designers take full advantage of this law and they also create designs that increase both speed and range. The cars with the top speeds and ranges incorporate the dual-engine design referred to earlier. Depending on the application one both or a combination of these designs and the law of thermodynamics are applied. Also, the second engine requires a conventional fuel to operate.
Figure 4. The MDI CityCat concept car has a dual-function engine that designers say will have a top speed of 68mph and has a range of 125 miles on compressed air alone.
The dual-engine models operate in four modes:
Mode 1 – At speeds below 35 mph, only compressed air is used. When a velocity of 35mph is reached, the small amounts of fuel – gasoline, propane, ethanol or bio fuels – combust continuously to heat air inside a heating chamber as the air enters the engine. This process produces emissions of only 0.141lbs of CO2 per mile. That is up to 25% less than the average internal combustion vehicle and more than 50% less than the cleanest vehicle available today.
Mode 2 – In this mode, the range of the car is increased by heating the compressed air before it is introduced in the engine.
Mode 3 – In this mode (when the vehicle’s speed exceeds 35 mph), the compressed air in the cylinder is no longer used. A built-in combined compressor kicks in to compress air, which is then heated in the external combustion chamber before being transferred to the active chamber and expanded, forcing the cylinder to move. Mode 3 is also is in effect when the car is travelling at speeds less than 35 mph and the supply cylinder is empty. Approximately 0.78 gallons of fuel per 100 miles is consumed in the heating process.
Mode 4 – In this mode, the combined compressor continues to operate as in Mode 3, but it also re-pressurizes the supply cylinder. The compressed air system is still central to propulsion, but this function can be likened to the General Motors “Flex Fuel” technology.
Technical Limits
The manufacturers who are on the verge of mass producing compressed air cars have had to consider many technical limits and the laws of physics.
As the pressurized air expands, it is cooled, which limits the efficiency. This cooling reduces the amount of energy that can be recovered by expansion, so practical engines need to apply ambient heat to increase the expansion available.
Conversely, the compression of the air by pumps (to pressurize the tanks) heats the air. If this heat is not recovered, it represents a further loss of energy and so reduces efficiency.
Storage of air at high pressure requires strong cylinders. Steel cylinders introduce a weight problem. Carbon fiber composites, while lighter, tend to be expensive.
Energy recovery in a vehicle during braking by compressing air also generates heat, which must be conserved for efficiency.
The air engine is not necessarily emission-free. The power to compress the air initially may produce emissions at the point of generation. However such emissions from the power to compress the air initially would be far less than the emissions from gasoline powered cars and trucks already on the streets.
Advantages
- The principle advantages for compressed air powered vehicle are:
- The biggest hurdle for any new fuel is in its availability and distribution. Here, air has an obvious advantage. Compressed-air “pumps” are inexpensive to manufacture and implement on a large scale, and as a renewable and abundant resource, air fill-ups would be far cheaper than gasoline is today.
- Fast recharge time
- Very low self-discharge, compared to most batteries that deplete their charge more quickly.
- Electric vehicle batteries have a limited useful number of cycles.
- Potentially lower initial cost than battery electric vehicles when mass produced.
- Cool exhaust air can be used to cool the car’s interior.
- Zero pollution.
Disadvantages
- Having solved most of the high pressure storage and handling problems, the main remaining disadvantages are related to the thermodynamics of air compression and expansion, the consequent temperature changes, and the resultant heat transfers.
- At the supply station, compressing the air heats it, and if then directly transferred in a heated state to the vehicle storage tanks will then cool and reduce the pressure. If cooled before transfer, the energy in this heat will be lost unless sophisticated low grade heat utilization is employed.
- Within the vehicle, expansion and consequent pressure reduction in the throttle or engine chills the air, reducing its effective pressure. Addition of ambient heat will increase this pressure and this addition leads to a more complex propulsion system..
- Passenger compartment heating is more difficult since the propulsion system does not provide a source of waste heat. Some form of heat pump device would probably be required.
- One manufacturer projects that a dual-function car can be driven from Los Angeles to New York on a single eight-gallon tank of gas for the auxiliary pump.
The latest innovation
The newest addition to the MDI line of compressed air vehicles is aimed at the urban mobility market. Named the AIRPod, it costs only 1.3 cents per mile to operate. It can accommodate four passengers and is ideal for operation in urban areas. It is operated with a joy stick instead of a steering wheel and its direction is controlled by applying different speeds to each wheel. Its 50-gallon, 5,000-psi tank can be re-charged in 1.5 minutes. In road traffic, it has a range of 150 miles at a top speed of 45 mph. The AIRPod will be the first vehicle to come off MDI production lines in spring 2009.
Compressed Air Car Developers and Manufacturers
The
Air Car Factory – Air
Car Factories SA is proposing to develop and build a compressed air
engine. This Spanish based company was founded by Miguel Celades, a
former colleague of MDI’s Guy Nègre. Celades has
created a company called Air Car Factories, which is currently working
with the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and expects to have a
compressed air car prototype ready in the near future. The car under
development can travel at 68 mph and has a range of 93 miles when
energized by compressed air alone. If the compressed air is heated, the
range can be expanded to 600 or so miles. An eight-gallon gas tank
would somehow heat the incoming air to high pressure to drive the car
once the 4,500 psi cylinder is empty.• www.aircarfactories.com
Energine Corporation – The Energine Corporation, a South Korean company worked on a hybrid compressed air and electric engine, actually pneumatic-hybrid electric vehicles. Its compressed-air engine drives an alternator that extends the autonomous operating capacity of the car.
• www.energine.com
U.S. Government – The U.S. Government is using a pneumatic accumulator in a largely hydraulic system for application in heavy vehicle applications.
Electro-Tech Enterprises – Electro-Tech Enterprises is a small company that specializes in electric air vehicles using a new technology discovered by themselves that is currently in the proto-type phase.
K’Airmobiles K’Airmobiles – K’Airmobiles K’Airmobiles has built prototypes of vehicles with pneumatic assistance for use in urban or leisure vehicles. They incorporate a compressed air engine with up to 100-liter cylinders that can be compressed up 3,000 psi. Application is on small vehicles up to 250 kg in size.
MDI and Tata Motors (See body copy.)
Zero Pollution Motors (See body copy.)
